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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
Open-Book Testing i
Teaching the Introductory Course ii
Why Read This Instructor’s Manual? xxv
CHAPTERS
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology in Your Life 1
Chapter 2: Research Methods in Psychology 19
Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior 33
Chapter 4: Sensation 51
Chapter 5: Perception 71
Chapter 6: Mind, Consciousness, and Alternate States 85
Chapter 7: Learning and Behavior Analysis 105
Chapter 8: Memory 125
Chapter 9: Cognitive Processes 143
Chapter 10: Intelligence and Intelligence Assessment 163
Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span 181
Chapter 12: Motivation 217
Chapter 13: Emotion, Stress, and Health 239
Chapter 14: Understanding Human Personality 261
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders 289
Chapter 16: Therapies for Personal Change 315
Chapter 17: Social Processes and Relationships 335
Chapter 18: Social Psychology, Society, and Culture 357 

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Experiments and Demonstrations (By Philip Zimbardo)
OPEN-BOOK TESTING
By Kay Burke, Ph.D.
WHY IT MAKES SENSE
Educators who allow students to take open-book tests are not teaching for the test; they
are teaching for understanding. Most students agree that open-book tests are more
challenging than traditional objective tests because they require high-order thinking
skills rather than recall skills.
The greatest benefit from open-book testing may be that it encourages the type of
thinking that will benefit students in the real world.
.
Open-book tests focus on students learning important concepts rather than
memorizing facts.
.
They encourage students to utilize the lifelong learning skill of “accessing
information” rather than memorizing data. In most jobs, people do not have to
memorize formulas or discrete bits of data; they have to know how to find the
important information they need in order to solve problems and complete projects.
.
Open-book tests encourage students to highlight the text and organize their notes so
they can find the information they need.
.
Open-book tests encourage students to apply the information they have learned and
transfer it to new situations, rather than just repeat the facts.
SOURCES:
Burke, K. B. The Mindful School: How to Assess Authentic Learning. Arlington Heights, IL.
Skylight Professional Development
Stiggins, R. J. (1985, October). Improving Assessment where it Means the Most: In the
Classroom. Educational Leadership, pp. 69-74.
Wiggins, G. (1989, April). Creating tests worth taking. Educational Leadership, pp. 121-127
Wiggins, G. and McTighe, J. (1989). Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 

TEACHING THE INTRODUCTORY COURSE
LAYING THE FOUNDATION FOR A WELL
ORGANIZED COURSE
Most of us have experienced at least one truly exciting, memorable course with smoothly flowing lectures
neatly tied together by threads of conceptual continuity, audiovisual presentations that began on time and
kept every student alert even though the lights were out, reserve readings that were actually available in the
library, and demonstrations that brought a thrill of discovery into the classroom. Such superb educational
experiences do not erupt spontaneously from mystical qualities found in a few gifted teachers. To make
them possible, certain basic ingredients must be assembled and organized well before the first class meets.
We present here a systematic planning guide to preparing for the introductory course. The methods could
be applied to just about any other course as well. For starters, a list of suggested administrative tasks and
teaching aids should help make course preparation efficient and even pleasant. As you organize your
course, an essential notion to bear in mind is that small things done at just the right time can be crucial both
in preventing major difficulties and in creating the conditions that turn an adequate course into a rich
encounter with a new world of ideas and information. The time sequencing suggested here should not be
taken lightly. It is intended to maximize your access to first-choice resources and allow a comfortable
margin for creative responses to unexpected contingencies.
GOALS OF AN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE
Introductory psychology is designed to present a broad view of the discipline and is generally a prerequisite
for all subsequent courses in the curriculum. The first step is to determine your goals for this course. What
do you intend to accomplish? In what ways would you like this course to contribute to your students’
education? Walker and McKeachie (1967) offer these goals for introductory psychology:
.
Communicate elementary concepts
.
Communicate facts in support of concepts
.
Introduce the student to the full range of subject matter
.
Integrate course material
.
Communicate basic attitudes of the discipline
.
Communicate the intrinsic interest of the subject matter
.
Present the newest developments in the field
.
Provide individual guidance and monitoring
.
Develop selected intellectual skills
.
Provide a suitable identification model for the students
THREE MONTHS BEFORE THE FIRST CLASS
MEETING
DRAFT A WORKING SYLLABUS DETAILING THE FOLLOWING:
.
The sequence of topics to be covered, with approximate time blocks allocated to each
.
Readings to be assigned for each topic
.
New lectures you plan to prepare, with a brief summary of major points to be included in each
.
Old lectures you want to improve
.
Demonstrations and discussions you expect to conduct 

Guest speakers you hope to schedule, with alternates in case your first choices are unavailable
.
Films and other audiovisual aids, with their intended use (e.g., films will be scheduled for class
time, while some audio and video tapes may be put on reserve in the library and recommended
in conjunction with appropriate topics)
FINALIZE COURSE PLANS
Finalize the syllabus except for specific dates for guest lecturers not yet committed and other details yet
unknown. It is OK to note that plans for some class periods are “in preparation.”
ONE TO TWO WEEKS BEFORE THE FIRST CLASS
.
Confirm that texts have been received by the bookstore and that reserve readings will be
available. Check for yourself.
.
Review all class materials and be sure that they are in fact duplicated, satisfactory, and located
where they can be found when needed.
.
If any uncertainty remains about audiovisual materials or items needed for demonstrations,
send out final orders and adapt your plans accordingly.
.
Finalize the syllabus and have it duplicated on three-hole paper in a quantity about 25 percent
larger than your anticipated need (students often take more than one). Also, distribute copies to
your colleagues. They need to know what you are doing in the basic course if it is a prerequisite
for their courses, and they may well have comments and suggestions you will find valuable.
THE FIRST CLASS
DON’T TALK ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY: SHOW ME
Introductory psychology differs from other classes because the students will be able to relate to much of the
material on a personal level. As you explain to the students that this psychology course speaks to
contemporary personal and social issues, you are on the spot to show them rather than just proclaim it.
Starting the class with a demonstration can be a first-day relief to both you and your students. If you start
the class with a brief “Candid Camera” film or a demonstration of the kind outlined in the Experiments
and Demonstrations section of this manual, you are not talking the whole time, and you and your class
together are relating to the same material. For the students, a demonstration will be a welcome relief from all
of their other first-day-of-the-term courses, which typically are “very talky” and full of logistics. To avoid the
latter, come early and follow these guidelines:
.
Post on the blackboard your course title, the course number, and your name. Also note on the
board: “Please look over the syllabus; we will discuss it at the end of the class hour.”
.
Arrange to have the syllabus distributed at the entrance to the classroom, with extra copies
available at the front and rear of the room.
.
Do not begin the course with a proclamation of the usual details about course organization.
These details are in the syllabus.
.
Avoid the “Psychology Is a Science” routine, so typical in many first classes. It makes you
defensive, often antagonizes some “hard science” majors, and is unnecessary. Students should
discover the scientific foundations of psychology through their reading and your general
exposition.
For a demonstration to be especially suitable for the first class, it should be intrinsically intriguing, require
no advance knowledge by students, and be a take-off point for introducing some of the basic questions of
psychology. Several of the demonstrations suggested in the Experiments and Demonstrations section of
this manual fit these criteria. 

KEEP ANTICIPATING YOUR NEEDS
GUEST LECTURERS
Contact a guest seven to ten days before his or her presentation date. Send written confirmation of the date,
time, topic, and directions to the classroom if needed. Speak to the guest personally: Ask about equipment
needs and for comments for your introduction. Provide the guest with a copy of the syllabus, an idea of
what you have covered related to the topic, the level of sophistication of the class, and any special
classroom procedures you follow. Announcements of visitors expected to be of general interest should be
posted for your colleagues’ information as well.
DEMONSTRATIONS
The major virtue of a demonstration or class experiment lies in making one point, or a few points, in a vivid,
memorable form. Other virtues are generating greater class interest with a more varied format, seeing
psychology in action, and building up a reserve of “can’t miss” demonstrations you can rely on term after
term. Nevertheless, the first time out, demonstrations take lots of planning and time. All demonstrations
should be tried at least once before you attempt them in class; if possible, they should be practiced several
times. This is the only way to accurately gauge the time you need, anticipate operational difficulties, and get
the feel of introducing the demonstration, making transitions, and concluding it. For demonstrations that
are time-consuming or demanding, videotape them so next time you are set to go through with the show if
something goes amiss in the live act.
LECTURES
Lectures should be drafted in final form several days before they are to be delivered so that you can revise
them as the ideas revolve in your mind. Lectures read verbatim are almost inevitably deadly boring. Never
read a lecture, unless you can read like Dylan Thomas.
OUTLINES
Draw up an outline on the evening or morning before the lecture date and speak from that outline, carrying
the full notes in your briefcase for reference and a sense of security. If duplicating facilities are adequate, it is
helpful to distribute copies of your outline to the students as they enter the room. Otherwise, you may want
to write the outline on the board or display it by overhead projection. Teachers who use an overhead
projector regularly during their lectures may keep their outline visible throughout, projecting it via a second
overhead projector on one side of the screen. Speaking from your outline encourages spontaneity of
expression and natural nonverbal interaction with your students, while making the outline available to
students in advance allows them to attend to the content of your presentation without simultaneously
attempting to tease out its structure. It is also a helpful gift to students who must miss a class or leave early
and so is appreciated by all. Writing the outline in advance also forces you to be organized and to avoid
last-minute rushes. When you cannot prepare an outline in advance, distribute one the next session.
AUDIT OTHER PSYCHOLOGY COURSES
If there is an introductory psychology course in progress in the term before yours, sit in on it periodically.
See how the teacher launches the course, handles testing and evaluation, and deals with disturbances.
What might you do to get the same positive results but avoid any negative ones you observe? Try to get a
sense of the time involved in routine events such as distributing and collecting papers, especially if the class
is about the size you expect your own to be. Sit in the back of the room while a class is in session in the room
you will be using to find out how the acoustics are and to see how large your writing on the chalkboard
must be in order to be clearly legible to those in the last row. Review student course evaluations to learn
what teaching qualities are viewed as desirable by administrators and students. Talk to other introductory 

psychology teachers about their experiences. Your interest will be highly rewarding to your colleagues, and
the advice you receive may be invaluable to you. Find out from students or colleagues who are the “star”
teachers in your department. Visit some of their classes to perform your own analysis of what they are doing
that works so well. Consider what you might adopt or adapt from their general style or specific performance
components.
STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHING
There is no single ideal teaching style; many styles can lead to the same positive educational outcomes. The
best style for you in a given teaching situation is not necessarily the one you feel most comfortable using at
first. The style must allow you to achieve your teaching objectives, considering the course you are teaching
and the kind of students in your class. A shy, introspective manner may work well in a small seminar of
advanced students; it will not get far in a large lecture hall filled with lower-level students.
TEACHING METHODS
The key to effective delivery of your message is variation. Although lecturing continues to be the most
common teaching method, it is most effective in small doses, particularly if you are not an outstanding
performer. Other methods include discussion, demonstration, films and other audiovisual resources, group
projects, experiments, and written or oral exercises. Keep in mind that any of these approaches can be
combined. For example, team teaching certain lectures with a colleague from your department or another
department, or giving a mini-lecture in a discussion section.
TRADITIONAL LECTURE SYSTEM
You give two or three lectures per week with an occasional film, demonstration, group activity, or guest
speaker. Examinations are taken in class and cover both lecture and text content. You provide some new
information, extend text materials, and serve as a model of enthusiasm for the subject matter. If you cannot
at least role-play being enthusiastic about psychology in general, do not lecture in the traditional form. This
format also demands an effective “acting-delivery” style; you must be on your “power spot” when up on the
stage, or else do not choose to be a traditional lecturer. In a large class, teachers are often bothered by the
impersonality of the setting. This is especially the case if the teacher lectures from a stage that creates both a
physical and a psychological separation between the lecturer-as-performer and the students-as-audience.
TEAM TEACHING
Pair up with a colleague whose interests and strengths complement yours and teach the course in tandem.
This is especially advisable for new teachers because the day-to-day workload is shared, it can be exciting
to brainstorm about teaching, and you can arrange for feedback.
DISCUSSION SECTIONS
In lecture settings, the lecturer takes control and usually runs with the ball most of the period. In small
discussion sections (from 10 to 30 students), the instructor willingly surrenders much of the control. The
discussion section is a means of providing information, usually in an informal manner, with ample time
allowed for questions, answers, demonstrations, and role-playing. The discussion leader involves the
students in decisions about the direction of the course and how they can help to implement course
objectives. Discussion sections can be valuable sources of intellectual, effective stimulation for both teacher
and student when they are well designed. One variation is to combine the lecture format with a once-weekly
class session devoted to student-led discussion about the current topic. 

UNIT MASTERY SYSTEM
In the unit mastery system, lectures may be optional or given as special features, with the grade dependent
solely on completion of all quizzes at or beyond the mastery level. The major features of this system are:
.
Students progress through course assignments at their own pace.
.
Instead of mass testing at prefixed lecture times, each student comes to a testing center
whenever he or she is ready to take a particular exam.
.
The testing center is run by student proctors, staff personnel, or the instructor.
.
Tests failed may be repeated without penalty on parallel forms after a suitable time for restudy.
Feedback on test performance is immediate, private, and personalized from proctor to student
test-taker.
.
Testing and grading are physically and psychologically separated from the lecturer and lecture
setting, with the advantage of more positive attitudes toward the teacher. A unit mastery system
takes considerable effort to set up, but once you have done so you are freed from all chores
related to testing and evaluation. Since each student progresses at an individual rate in taking
the chapter quizzes, you are also liberated from having to teach a specified amount of material
before each preestablished examination date, as occurs with traditional evaluation systems.
References:
Hobbs, S. H. (1987). PSI: Use, misuse, and abuse. Teaching of psychology, 14, 106-107.
Keller, Fred A., & Sherman, J. Gilmour. (1974). The Keller plan handbook: Essays on a personalized
system of instruction. Menlo Park, CA: W. A. Benjamin.
SOME BASIC MECHANICS OF TEACHING
Your decisions about teaching methods and your experiences will shape your unique style of teaching.
Regardless of what that style is now or may become, some elements are common to all effective teaching
styles. Here are several of those elements:
.
At the beginning of class, review briefly what you talked about the last time the class met. Ask if
there are any questions about previous material. Next, let the students know what your goals
are for today. What you want them to get from today’s lecture? Outline the major points of the
lecture on the board or on an overhead transparency.
.
Correct and pass back quizzes, exams, and papers as soon as possible. Nobody likes to be left
in the lurch when it comes to feedback. Getting materials back quickly to students shows that
you are being considerate of them.
.
Pass back exams and deal with administrative matters after your lecture. On days that you will
be passing out test results, plan to cut your lecture short to leave room to answer questions.
This ensures that there is time for your lecture. Passing back quizzes or exams at the beginning
of class is generally a bad idea because students who are disappointed with their exam grade
may tune you out for the remainder of the class period.
.
Create an opportunity for students to review their exams with you, if only to ask questions
about examination material. Allow students to defend their interpretation of an exam question
in writing. If a student challenges a question in an unkind manner, suggest that the two of you
get together after class to consider the matter. If, because of further discussion with the student,
you decide that the exam question was a bad one and you will give students credit for it,
announce the change to the class.
.
Learn the names of your students. This can generally be quickly accomplished in a class of 25
to 50 students, but will be tough in sections of several hundred students. Learning students’
names shows that you are interested in your students and it may help them to become more
interested in your class—they know that you know who they are and that their contributions to
class have personal implications. 

Encourage student questions. Even in large sections, a good way to start discussion—a nice
break from straight lecturing—is to allow time for questions. When it comes to students’
questions, keep in mind three points. First, repeat the question for the benefit of students sitting
in the back of the room who may not have been able to hear the question. Second, show genuine
interest in the question either by considerately answering it yourself, or by throwing it out to the
class for their response. Third, let the student who asked the question know that you appreciate
his or her participation.
.
If you do not know the answer to a question, say so. If the question is an interesting one, tell
your students that you will find the answer for them.
.
Pace your lectures. Make time in your lectures to explain your points in their entirety. If you
have prepared too much material for the class period, DO NOT rush to get through it. Slow
down, develop your points carefully and thoughtfully. One sure way to ruin an otherwise good
course is to force students to cram. Let them have the time to think about the material you are
presenting to them. You will be able to tell when you are lecturing too fast, confusing, or boring
your students. The puzzled look on a student’s face is a sure sign that he or she is not following
you. Respond by saying, “Would anybody like me to repeat that?” or “Let me say that another
way.”
HOW TO PREPARE A COURSE SYLLABUS
A comprehensive syllabus can go a long way toward smoothing the operation of the course and facilitating
a comfortable relationship between you and your class. It saves class time by answering most of the
questions students have at the outset of the course in a form that they can keep for reference. Since the
course is just one of many demanding activities for students as well as for you, the syllabus helps keep all of
you aware of where you’ve been, where you should be on any given day, and where you intend to go. Here
are suggestions for the content of a syllabus for the introductory psychology course, divided into
“essentials” and “options.” The sample syllabus contains mostly essentials.
SYLLABUS ESSENTIALS
.
General information. The name and number of the course including section number, the time
and location, the academic term, your name, your office location and phone number, office
hours, names of Teaching Assistants (TA’s), their office locations and hours.
.
The name of the text and student resource manual, as well as any other supplies required for
the course, such as answer sheets.
.
Goals or objectives.
.
Course requirements explaining the format of and points for exams, quizzes, and papers.
.
Class calendar. Reading assignments, dates of tests, due dates for papers and/or activities.
.
Testing format and procedures.
.
Class policies. Attendance, missed tests, grading, extra credit work.
SYLLABUS OPTIONS
.
Expanded class calendar, including lecture topics, films, and activities.
.
Detailed description of testing procedure.
.
Autobiographical information about yourself.
.
Where to get help, including the student health center, the learning resources center, and/or the
counseling office.
.
Effective study habits and efficient use of study time.
.
Guidelines and topics for papers.
.
Learning objectives for each chapter.
.
Essay questions for each chapter or exam.
.
Discussion of section meetings and activities.
.
Research participation requirements. 

Paper 3 due November 7
Reading assignment. November 7 to November 28
Ch. 14 Understanding Human Personality
Ch. 15 Psychological Disorders
Ch. 16 Therapies for Personal Change
Test 4 November 28
Paper 4 due November 30
Reading assignment. November 30 to December 14
Ch. 17 Social Processes and Relationships
Ch. 18 Social Psychology, Society, and Culture
Final Examination. December 17 

the preceding class period, sexual daydreams whose fantasy is much more stimulating than any lecture).
This fierce competition means that at any given time many students are unaware of the important things
you have said. (Try collecting a sample of your students’ notes from time to time to see how much of your
output was never received or was grossly distorted.)
Audience distractions may be minimized in several ways:
.
Timing: Hold your main points to about 5 minutes each (never more than 10 minutes) and
insert a bit of humor, an anecdote, or an opportunity for a few questions into the transition
period preceding the next main point. An outline on the board or a mimeographed outline is
beneficial in keeping the students–and yourself–on track.
.
Variety: Use catchy stylistic devices (stories, clever brief demonstrations) and change your
expressive style (volume, pacing, pregnant pauses) to add variety to the rather narrow band of
stimuli involved in straight talk. Although you have written out your lecture, do not read it!
.
Mini-climaxes: Draw your information together at several points throughout the lecture,
reemphasizing relevant ideas and conceptual ties and providing those students who may have
“zoned out” earlier with the means to reenter the flow of information.
.
Value the ending: The conclusion of the lecture is vital to its total impact; often, due to the recency
effect, the conclusion will be remembered best. Use it well. Never rush in the last quarter of the
class to say quickly all of the essential points. It is better to reserve the time needed to effectively
summarize, even if students are left to expand a few of the main points on their own.
IN ADDITION TO LECTURE
DISCUSSIONS
Discussions have limited value in introductory courses for several reasons. Classes are frequently too large
for their effective use; extroverts in the front rows may carry on a lively dialogue while their peers at the rear
call up their favorite daydreams. In addition, discussions can be a “pooling of ignorance” because students
may not have read the assigned material in the text and may lack the background necessary to contribute to
a meaningful discussion. Despite these considerations, students benefit from, and enjoy, sharing their ideas
and experiences. The goal is to make that sharing educationally beneficial. Here are some suggestions:
.
Make your intention clear to the students by saying “Let’s talk about how you feel when you’ve
been punished—when your parents criticize you or you get a ticket for a traffic violation,” or
“What do you think influences our self-esteem? How do we form our opinions about
ourselves?”
.
Plan topics for discussion around experiences students have had, a film that has been shown,
or a situation that you have described.
.
Pause after introducing the topic or asking the question to give students time to consider a
response.
.
Tactfully summarize or repeat the point made by a student if the student has expressed himself
or herself poorly or did not speak loudly enough to be heard by class members.
.
Be receptive to students’ contributions to the discussion and reinforce them for participating.
Reward them with verbal commendations for comments and questions, and if the point they
have made is particularly relevant or insightful, let the class know. When students’ comments
are erroneous or irrelevant, or when students have difficulty expressing themselves, still
respond in a positive tone, and try to salvage some part of their comments to move the
discussion along.
.
Try breaking the class into small groups for discussion. Prepare explicit directions for the
groups, and require each group to make a report to you or to the class. 

DEMONSTRATIONS
Preparation is the key to the successful use of demonstrations. If equipment or props are required, they
should be assembled and set up before class. If something goes wrong, it is better to abandon or postpone
the demonstration than to fiddle with the equipment or send a student for a missing ingredient. Remember
that competent people are more lovable if they make an occasional blunder, particularly if they can handle
the situation with humor.
Relate demonstrations to everyday experiences. For example, if you demonstrate how additive mixtures of
blue and green produce yellow, suggest that students look at their color-television screen with a magnifying
glass.
Although students enjoy evaluation of their personality traits, copies of standardized tests are not included
in this manual because of copyright laws. However, most psychology departments have a test file you could
examine for appropriate tests. If you do use a test or tests, you should carefully explain to students that
these tests have limited validity and reliability, and that any single test is a small element in the evaluation
of an individual’s personality.
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Audiovisual materials are an effective and enjoyable way of communicating psychological concepts to
students. A review of specific recommended films is included within the Chapter-by-Chapter section.
Films and videos available on your own campus have the advantage of being readily available both for
previewing and for use in class. Remember to reserve them for the date you want to show them in class.
Always preview a film or video before showing it in class. If it is of poor quality or inappropriate, you can
avoid wasting class time.
SLIDES, TRANSPARENCIES, AND LASERDISCS
Slides, transparencies, and images from the laserdisc add color and visual appeal to lectures. A large image
of an eyeball, an illusion, the brain, or a Rorschach inkblot is worth many words.
In some ways, transparencies are the easiest to work with because they can be used in a lighted room. In
addition, it is easy to make your own transparencies. You can write directly on the masters or you can
photocopy an illustration and transfer it to a transparency master using a photocopying machine.
COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
Technological innovations rarely have universal appeal when they first appear on the market. However,
over time, the innovative often becomes the commonplace. The once-daring use of slides, transparencies,
and films is now expected in introductory psychology classes. An increasing number of elementary and
high school students are learning to use the computer and enter college with a degree of computer literacy
unknown to past generations. As hardware prices fall, computers become more attractive as cost-effective
tools for classroom use. The use of computers in the classroom for instruction and in learning resource
centers for tutorial review is still new, but holds great promise.
HOW TO EVALUATE STUDENTS
DECISIONS ABOUT ASSIGNMENTS
Will I make reading assignments from publications other than the text? Some instructors prefer to select a
limited number of chapters from the text and to assign other readings related to the chosen chapters.
Although this provides more in-depth coverage of some areas, it neglects other areas of psychology. As the


areas covered in the course are reduced, the course becomes less and less the broad survey it is intended to
be.
At the introductory level, most professors assign all or most of the chapters in the text and little or no
outside reading. Because of their familiarity with the material covered in the introductory course, instructors
can underestimate the difficulty of the text for students. Students who do well in the introductory course
study, rather than just read, the text. If you do want to assign some additional readings, be sure that your
campus library can supply enough copies of the assigned material.
Will I make writing assignments?
Your decision concerning writing assignments is likely to be influenced by the size of your class and the
amount of assistance you can expect for reading papers. Writing experience is an important element in
education and if you have the time and resources, you should include some written work in your
requirements. A good option is to assign several short papers rather than a traditional term paper.
DECISIONS ABOUT TESTING
How many tests will I give?
Due to the scope of material, it is best to test frequently in an introductory course. Tests do take class time,
and if you think of tests as purely a means of evaluation, you may feel that frequent testing takes too much
class time. However, tests are powerful pedagogical tools because they inspire students to study and they
provide feedback on the effectiveness of students’ efforts. Marvels of modern technology, like the test bank
accompanying this text, have made testing relatively easy for the instructor. You choose the items from the
test bank and the computer program will print them, number them, scramble them, and provide you with an
answer key, or keys if you use more than one order of items. You can also edit test questions and add your
own.
What kind of tests will I give?
Multiple-choice tests are the standard evaluative method in introductory psychology. Many of the multiple-
choice questions in the test bank that accompanies this text involve application, interpretation, or
conceptualization so you need not feel that you are just assessing rote learning. If you prefer to give essay
tests or combine essay questions with objective items, you will also find a supply of essay questions in the
test bank.
What will my tests cover?
Tests in introductory classes primarily cover the text; you can select and/or edit items from the
professionally written Test Bank to cover the text material. You may also prefer to let students know in the
syllabus that tests will include outside-class assignments as well as anything that occurs in class, such as
lectures, films, demonstrations, and experiments. Of course, you will have to write your own questions to
cover these other aspects of the course.
How long should my tests be?
Most students can read and answer a multiple-choice question in less than a minute, so if your class lasts
50 minutes, the test should have no more than 45 items to allow a few minutes for test distribution. If your
class period is longer than 50 minutes, give a longer test since reliability increases with test length. It is best
to make the test the only activity of the class day. 

No matter how much time is allowed for a test, some students will not be ready to hand in their paper when
the allotted time is up. Tell them you are leaving, and that if they want to receive credit for the test, they must
hand in their papers immediately.
What will I do about students who miss tests?
There is no ideal solution to this problem. One “must” is that you have a policy you can easily enforce and
that you inform students of this policy in the syllabus. Ideally, do whatever you can to discourage students
from missing tests. One way to do this is to require verification of illness or other legitimate reasons for
absence on test days. Still another helpful hint—inform students in the syllabus that you advise them to
drop the course if they miss more than one test.
The option of allowing students to take the missed test later is not advised. If you do not have another test
on the material, the class will have to wait until all of the makeups are done before they get feedback. Even if
you do have another test you can use, you may find yourself proctoring individual students at times that are
convenient for them rather than for you.
Here are two options for dealing with the inevitable situation of missed tests:
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Assign a score for the missing test based on the student’s performance on the other tests.
Substituting the lowest test score for the missing score discourages students from missing tests,
but it penalizes students who miss a test for legitimate reasons. Using the average of the other
test scores seems fair, but students who are good strategists will figure out that it is better to be
“sick” than to take a test unprepared.
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Students drop their lowest quiz score. This is an attractive option because students who miss a
test can use the missed test as their lowest score. However, this option is advised only if you
give several tests during the term and only if the tests are roughly equivalent in terms of type
and difficulty. One caution in this situation is that the last test score should not be dropped. If
you let students drop the score on the last test, those who are satisfied with their scores on
earlier tests may consider the class finished for them several weeks before the end of the term,
and therefore fail to study material that will be included on the final.
How can I prevent cheating on tests?
This is something we do not like to think or talk about, but cheating in the classroom is a reality, and you
should do what you can to prevent it. Students who do not cheat become justifiably upset if they perceive
that you are not doing your best to prevent cheating. Here are some methods of cheating and some
preventive measures:
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Copying from an unsuspecting neighbor. Use the computerized Test Bank to construct two or
more forms of your test. Each form should be in a different scrambled order.
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Collaborating with a friend by exchanging papers. Use vigilant proctoring, watching for
students to exchange papers by passing them under the seats.
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Getting a copy of the test before it is given. Keep tests in a securely locked cabinet or file drawer.
Be sure stencils or discarded pages are not left in a wastebasket that is accessible to students.
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Failure to hand in the test and answer sheet and claiming absence on the day of the test. Have
students sign an attendance sheet as they enter the classroom.
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Getting someone else to take the test. Most campuses that have classes large enough for this to
be a problem issue identification cards with pictures. Have students bring their cards to class
and show them as they hand in their tests.
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Surreptitious use of notes. Have students put all books and papers under their seats and leave
them there until they are ready to hand in their papers and leave. Another solution is to make
the notes legitimate—allow students to bring to an exam one page of notebook paper with